5 Ways to Improve Adult Literacy

The Economists Economic Theory Essay - 770 Words

Jovanny Ibarra Mr.Nasr Economics 2 December 2016 The Economists What is the best way to earn money. To entrust on someone else like the government or yourself? Two economists, John Maynard Keynes and Friedrich von Hayek had two contrasting views on how the government should handle the market. Keynes believe on the government controlling the market while Hayek wanted the government to stay away from it. Hayek’s economic theory is right because it focuses on us as citizens to have responsibilities towards our money. To be utilized fully in a decentralized market system with free competition and pricing.(1) Then to be able to save money rather keeping money being spent from Keynes’ belief. First, Friedrich Von Hayek was an economist born in Austria. His work was involved with business cycles, the term of periods of growth and decay. Capital theory and monetary theory.(2) He believed that if the government were to stay away from the market, then the business cycles would be removed or at least won’t be having recession. Then there also the problems governments had with the economy such as depressions. If the citizens would had authority towards it, then the money would’ve been spent in different things such as today. U.S spending money on the military rather than education. Hayek accused Keynes of insufficient attention to the nature of capital in production. (3) Meaning the labor that is used for making business. How these investments are being used for keep up with aShow MoreRelatedClassical and Neoclassical Economists: Adam Smith and John Maynard Keynes1289 Words   |  6 PagesIn order to understand how economics really work in today’s age we must think about how those economic ideas, revolutionary theories of many economists, that helped to shape the economic structure as we know it now, through many individuals and school of economic though that has existed through the ages. These schools are â€Å"the mercantilists, the physiocrats, the classical econo mists, Marxian economics, the neoclassical economists and the monetarist economics. For this essay I will only refer toRead MoreMacroeconomic Theories Of Macroeconomics And Classical Economics999 Words   |  4 PagesMacroeconomics is a branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of an economy as a whole, rather than individual markets. This includes national, regional, and global economies. 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Accounting 310 Unit 3db Activity Based Costing Process Costing Free Essays

Compare and contrast job order costing to process costing methods. Comparison: These systems are to determine the manufacturing costs of products. Both costing systems combine direct materials, direct labor and overhead which is indirect costs or could be considered a direct cost in the process costing method nonetheless both systems use this in the process of producing products. We will write a custom essay sample on Accounting 310 Unit 3db Activity Based Costing Process Costing or any similar topic only for you Order Now The manufacturing accountants assign cost objectives to raw materials inventory, work in process inventory and finished goods. These systems are necessary to determine inventory, profit and the units that are sold and the price for them. The cost flows through the general ledger accounts for direct materials, direct labor and overhead is also the same. Contrast: Job order costing is for customized orders to meet the specific needs of a customer. This type of manufacturing doesn’t take place until the customer puts in a request for items. This process involves the company predicting the cost to get the job done, negotiating a price with the customer and then set out a timeframe to start and complete the job order. Wild Shaw, 2012) Job order costing tracks specific costs to specific jobs it could be a single unit or a small amount of similar units. Records are maintained on a job cost sheet for each job. The job cost sheet shows the customer the job number assigned, product and key dates. (Wild Shaw, 2012) In essence, job order costing is for companies that produce different products in small amounts. Process costing method focal point is for high volume of one type of product or many similar products. Manufacturing of products takes place through a synchronized process. Processing is based on demand that is forecasted by managers not based on customized orders like job order processing. For example, Avon Products, Inc manufacturing facility is located in a suburb of Chicago and they use process costing method to produce lotion and makeup. Also, worth mentioning is that direct materials, labor and overhead are assigned to departments. It focuses on departmental functions and the job cost sheet tracks cost for units within several related departments. What kind of system works best in what kinds of companies? Job order processing system works best for companies that are producing multiple items that may vary in size or color and is used best for customized production. Companies that produce t-shirts, wedding invitations or airplane manufacturers are good examples of businesses that use this type of system. This system worked well for a previous plumbing company I worked for, the client will tell the plumber the problem, he would then negotiate a price and sometimes the client wouldn’t be happy with the price and he would have to decline the offer or possibly lower his offer. Afterwards, he would setup a time and date to get started and would tell them when he would be finished, however he required his payment upfront sometimes and with larger jobs the client would pay a deposit upfront and he would use that to purchase materials or pay his laborers and the remaining balance was due once the work was complete. Cost processing system works well with companies that have a series of steps that has to be done repetitively in order to complete a task. Companies like Avon that produces cosmetics, Pepsi that produces soft drinks and Hershey that produces chocolate use this type of system. What kind of system makes sense for your company, given that you plan to start with only one version of your product but at some point in the future may offer a variety of options? Since there is a standard design, one type of product at this time the processing cost method would be the best fit so that one product is no different from the other. It will be able to produce large number of units on a continuous basis and all units will pass through a similar process. Wild Shaw, 2012) This methodology makes more sense for my company because it is producing homogenous products, there is no need for flexibility and a high volume needs to be produced quickly. Each department will be responsible for producing a certain output that will then become input for another department and this will happen in sequence. In the future we will continue with process as well just like with Pepsi and Avon they started out with one product and overtime added additional products to their line of service. References AIU Online. (2010). ACCT310: Unit 3: Process vs Job Order Processing [Multimedia presentation]. Retrieved from AIU Online Virtual Campus. Managerial Accounting: ACCT310-1103B-04 website Job order costing and processing compared. (2010-2011). Retrieved from http://worldacademyonline. com/article/13/271/job_order_costing_and_process_costing_c ompared. html Internal Accounting Engineering: System Requirements, Job Order System. (n. d). Retrieved from http://www. internalaccounting. com/jobcost. Wild, J. J. Shaw, K. W. (2012). Managerial Accounting. (3rd ed. ). New York, NY: McGraw Hill Irwin How to cite Accounting 310 Unit 3db Activity Based Costing Process Costing, Essays

Impact of Social Determinants on African- Americans in US samples for

Question: Discuss About The Impact Of Social Determinants On African- Americans In US? Answer: Introducation: Health is determined by varied factors in an individual in which social (population) determinants are of greater importance because of its direct effect on the people as well as countrys development. The importance of societal- determinants of Health was proposed by Healthy People (2020 AD) in its guidelines by involving develop societal with physical environmental conditions to enhance health for all people as one of its goals (NHMDP, 2011). These social- determinants comprises of the living- conditions where an individual has born, currently lives, grows, learns, works, plays and ages. These determinants are affected by man, money, and materialistic resources as well as its distribution at localized, nationalized and internationalized levels. The alterations in its distribution may lead to inequality, gap with inequity in health- care which is unfair but is avoidable. In 2008, the Commission of WHO on societal- determinants has released a report as closing the gap (inequity) in the generations: to enhance health-equity by controlling the societal- determinants. This is also supported by the National- collaborations (partnerships) for Action to remove health- disparity(2011)as well as National- prevention with health- promotional strategies (2011). The UDHR definition also addresses the importance of social determinants in improving health- outcomes and also specifies that health as well as societal security is fundamental human- right. The developed nations are very worse than poorer nations in developing societal health (Wilkinson, 2010). In 2008, Ramirez states that health- inequalities are large and persistent in United States. He adds that societal factors such as illiteracy, poverty, unequal economic status and racist discrimination, poor housing facilities and gender- discrimination leads to inequality and can minimize the participation of c ommunity in health- care. As per WHOs statement, health involves physical, emotional as well as societal wellbeing with the attainment of fullest health- standards, which is a basic fundamental right of each and every individuals without discrimination of racism, caste, religion, political aspects, societal and economical conditions. Hence, in this essay, racism (societal- determinants- of- health) is selected to show its impact on African Americans. Racism is found to play a greater role in acquiring the physical and psychological issues in African- Americans. This racial discrimination brings a feeling of inferiority or superiority among people and results in hatred of a person on other person based on their color, spoken language, beliefs, customs, birth place and traditional values. In regard to United States Census (2015), nearly 14.8% of the United States population is only Blacks but they have higher mortality rates as compared to other groups with New Jersey as the most racial place (Heinze, 2015, Carrillo, 2016). ThePLOS ONE Journal has also published that Northern New Jersey is more racist than its southern part. In the past 15 years many researches were conducted in regard to impact of racist discrimination on health of African- Americans. Over hundreds of studies were published showing the dangerous effect of racism on the men, women and children of African- Americans. They provide several disturbing findings with one result as provision of inferior health-care to Blacks. In United States, racism not only affects the physical and psychological health but also the societal, economical as well as cultural health of a person. Racist discrimination severely affects the physical health of African- Americans including children. It was found that the mortality with morbidity rates (due to heart diseases, stroke, cancer, diabetes mellitus, increased blood pressure, etc) of African- Americans is significantly higher as compared to others (Heinze, 2015). The life expectancy of Caucasian population was found to be 5 and half times more than that of blacks and the deaths due to chronic disorders were found to be 31% more in Blacks than that of Whites. TheGrios publication of Sanders essay- 2014 (a story of a Black police officer) has also mentioned the localized issues encountered by him because of his black race, which has affected his physical with societal health adversely (Carrillo, 2016). Even racial- discrimination strongly affects the mental health of African- Americans. Pieterse (2012) has conducted a review about the psychological- health of Blacks (African- Americans) and concluded that racism is strongl y related to the psychological- health and also causes increased anxious, depressive and other mental- related features. In 2009, Pascoe also suggested that the racial discrimination brings negative effect on both physical- and psychological- health which again brings negativity about self. This negative image starts from mothers womb affecting the psychological- health of the newborns adversely. Racism affects the societal and cultural health of African- Americans. When societal- constructionist theory is applied to racial- politics in United States, the preference to color of skin and physical appearance is used as a criterion for assigning people to racial groups (Figure:1). This was found as a main mechanism for unequal distribution of resources. The Blacks Americans were noted to be four times poorer than White Americans that again contributes to racism. Sometimes, cultural mistrust is found to be a significant factor in African- Americans who may not understand the need for particular investigations and management modality (Department of health with human- services of United States, 2001) and most of the women of African- Americans were found to die because of breast cancer as compared to White American women, which might be because of cultural mistrust (Gerendi, 2008). Racism also affects the legalized structure, societal and behavioral aspect,humanity andculture of United States. They encounter direct, indirect or institutional discrimination wherever they go (Sue, 2010). Even if equal rules are drawn, this may favor superior race than other races (National- research council, 2004). This discrimination has also lead to wars, robberies, slaveries and legalized codes causing disempowerment in Blacks by underestimating their human identity. Racism affects the economic health of African- Americans and pushes them under other races resulting in physical and psychological ill-health. Racism has a great impact on the car sales, insurance, home- mortgages, medical care, employment (Figure:1, Pager, 2007), housing aspects and even in getting taxis. Roscigno (2007) has analyzed serious claims and found that the discrimination ranges from harassment to exclusion. A report by New Jersey Citizen Action (2005) states that the car dealers has got $339 from blacks (more than whites) from 1993- 2000 (Pager et al, 2008).In 2005, Harris has analyzed the court cases filed for consumer discrimination from 1990 2002 and found that needed goods and services were denied for blacks and Hispanics (such as prolonged waiting time, higher prices, verbal and physical attacks). A study conducted by Williams (2005) implies that there is great variability in lending loans and there is deregulation in banking industry for Blacks and even the subprim e lenders stated that the African- Americans applicants has to pay higher rates, bank fees with closing- balance costs. Tomaskovic (2005)has suggested that African- Americans spend much time in searching for job than other races and even their residential makeup is different from Whites. The US, Department of housing with urban- development has audited Americans houses to measure the discrimination in housing against blacks, Asians, Latinos and Native Americans and found that 1 in 5 Blacks and 1 in 4 Hispanics has experienced adverse treatment during house search (Turner, 2003).These discriminations make them weak both economically as well as physically. By analyzing the impact of racism- (societal- determinant- of- Health), it is clear that racial discrimination brings inequities and inequalities in health- care among African- Americans leading to severe consequences. Even though there are greater advancements in science and technology, these racial and ethnical discriminations were left deep into the minds of people and are highly reluctant to change this attitude and indulge the feeling of one. This decimation has to be eradicated step- by- step from international aspects to national and local levels. Basically, the countrys initiatives taken to reduce the racial discriminations could be more effective only when they are proposed with strict rules. In-order to reduce the racial discrimination, UNESCOhas marked 21st March of every year asInternational- Day for the eradication (elimination) of racial- disparities. It was developed in memory of the adverse events that took place on 21st March, 1960 inSouth Africa (Sharpeville) during which the police have killed the demonstrators those who were protesting against a particular apartheidregime. United Nations has developed the first internationalhuman- rights related instrument named theUniversal- Declarations of human- rights(UDHR) that was taken legally by the United- Nations (UN) general assembly(1948) (UN- platform, 2015). The UDHR states that all the people should be treated with respect and dignity witheconomic and social rights(includingeducational rights) and culturalandpoliticalrights in participating election andcivil liberty . It also indicated that all the people should have equal right with on discrimination of race,color,gender,spoken language,religious aspect, political related aspects and other thoughts,national orsocietalorigin, personal property, place of birth and other status. The first Health- disparities inequalities report (CHDIR, 2011), that was released by CDC (the centre for disease- control with prevention) stated that a notable progress is noted in reducing the gap. By reducing this gap, African- Americans will definitely attain their physical, emotional, societal, cultural and economical health. World Health Organization has taken initiatives to handle the issues in health- inequalities and inequities that arise because of social-determinant of health. It adds that all the Governments are responsible for their peoples health that could be fulfilled only through the implementation of adequate health with societal means (UN- platform, 2015). Improper functioning of health- care systems could be a barrier to health- care and inadequate addressing of racism (societal- determinants) can hold back or reduce the progress of US on globalized health developmental goals. In 2015, the global agenda addresses the connectedness between societal policies with health in various sectors that was stated by the Rio- political declarations on societal- determinants. It has given action- plans to tackle health- inequities as to adopt an improved governance of health with development, promote community- participation in policy developing with implementing processes, reorient the health- care sy stem so as to promote health and minimize health- disparities, strengthen global collaboration with governance and promote accountability and assess health- care progress (Figure:1, WHO, 2016). The implementation of these policies and promoting accessibility to healthy foods, safer water, adequate housing with supporting networks will enhance the health- outcome of US. The health outcomes may not be achieved by just driving action into health- sectors alone but also should indulge actions in other sectors, which in-turn improves health- outcomes that contribute to attaining goals of other sectors. For ex: the healthiest population will improve the overall productivity in economy, promotes employment opportunities that help to minimize poverty as well as improves school attendance. Hence, if racism (societal- determinants- of- health) is controlled, it will not only promote the health of the Nation but also the wealth of the Nation. Reference Carrillo, E. (2016). One of the most racist places Ive ever been: Albuquerque Journal. Retrieved from https://www.abqjournal.com/809301/black-santa-fe-police-officer-calls-city-out-on-its-racism.html CHDIR. (2011). CDC Health Disparities Inequalities Report. Retrieved fromwww.cdc.gov/minorityhealth/chdir/2011/chdir2011.html Gerendi. (2008). Social determinants of black-White disparities in breast cancer mortality: A review. Cancer epidemiology Biomarkers. 17 (11). 2913- 2923 Heinze, J. (2015). And One Of the Most Racist Places in America Is...New Jersey?. Retrieved from https://patch.com/new-jersey/baskingridge/and-most-racist-place-america-iscloser-you-think National Partnership for Action. (2011). HHS Action Plan to Reduce Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 2011; andThe National Stakeholder Strategy for Achieving Health Equity, 2011. Retrieved from https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/npa National Research Council.(2004). Measuring Racial Discrimination: Panel on Methods for Assessing Discrimination.Washington, DC: Comm. Natl. Stat., Div. Behav. Soc. Sci. Educ., Natl. Acad. Press. New Jersey. Racism in New Jersey: PLOS ONE journal. Retrieved from https://journals.plos.org/ NHMDP. (2010). Healthy People 2020: An Opportunity to Address Societal Determinants of Health in the U.S: Secretarys Advisory Committee on National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives for 2020 Pager, DandShepherd, H. (2008). The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets. Annu Rev Sociol. 34: 181209. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2915460/ Pager, D. (2007). The use of field experiments for studies of employment discrimination: contributions, critiques, and directions for the future.Ann. Am. Acad. Polit. Soc. Sci.609:104133 Pascoe. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta analytic review. Psychology bulletin. 135 (4). 531- 554. Pieterse. (2012). Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: A meat analytic review: Journal of counseling psychology. 59 (1). 1- 9 Ramirez, L.K., Baker, E.A. Metzler, M. (2008). Promoting Health Equity: A Resource to Help Communities Address Social Determinants of Health. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention workbook. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dch/programs/healthy communitiesprogram/tools/pdf/sdoh- Brennan Roscigno. (2007).The Face of Discrimination: How Race and Gender Impact Work and Home Lives. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Siegelman, P. (2005). The evolution of employment discrimination law in the 1990s: a preliminary empirical investigation.Handbook of Employment Discrimination Research.Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. 261284. Sue, D.W. (2010). Microagressions in everyday life: Race, gender and sexual orientation. Hoboken, NJ. John Wiley and sons The National Prevention and Health Promotion Strategy.(2011). The National Prevention Strategy: Americas Plan for Better Health and Wellness. Retrieved from https://www.surgeongeneral.gov/initiatives/prevention/strategy/ Tomaskovic. (2005). Race and the accumulation of human capital across the career: a theoretical model and fixed-effects application:Am. J. Sociol.111: 5889. Turner.(2003). Discrimination in Metropolitan Housing Markets: National Results from Phase 2Asians and Pacific Islanders.Dep. Hous. Urban Dev. Retrieved from https://www.huduser.org/publications/pdf/phase2_final.pdf U.S. department of health and human services. (2001). Mental health: culture, race and ethnicity: A report to the surgeon general. Rockville. MDL. UN- platform. (2015). Health in the post-2015 development agenda: need for a social determinants of health approach: Joint statement of the UN Platform on Social Determinants of Health US census report. (2015). Frequently requested statistics forNew Jersey-Census. gov. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045215/34 WHO. (2016). Social determinants of health. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/social_determinants/sdh_definition/en/ Wilkinson, R., Pickett, K. (2010). The spirit level: Why greater equality makes societies stronger. New York: Bloomsbury Press. Williams. (2005). The changing face of inequality in home mortgage lending.Soc. Probl.52 (2):181208.

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Essays

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA I. Article 1: The Legislative Branch a. section 1: Legislative powers given.. b. section 2: Description of the House of Representatives. -Representatives elected every 2nd year -Qualifications of Representatives -Must be a citizen for at least seven years -Must be at least 25 years old -Will not be inhabitant of the state in which he is chosen -Number of Representatives per state -Executive authority fills vacancies -Choose speaker and officers, Sole power to impeach. c. section 3: Description of the Senate -Separation and replacement of senators -Qualifications of Senators -Must be a citizen for at least nine years -Must be at least 30 years old -Will not be inhabitant of the state in which he is chosen -Vice Presidents role in Senate -Choosing of offices and President pro tempore -Power given to try impeachment trials, and guidelines for such trials -Judgment guidelines for impeachment trials d. section 4: Elections of Senators and Representatives -Guidelines for election of Senators and Representatives e. Section 5: Rules of House and Senate -Guidelines for meetings in the Houses -Power to decide rules, punishments, and expulsions given -Guidelines for journals -Guidelines concerning adjourning f. section 6: Compensation and privileges of members -Compensation and Protection from arrest during meetings -Rules concerning holding offices g. section 7: Passage of bills -Revenue bills originate in the House of Representatives -Instructions concerning bills passed in House and Senate -Every order, resolution, and vote must be presented to the President h. section 8: Extent of Legislative power -Taxes, duties, imposts, excises -Borrowing money -Regulation of commerce -Laws about bankruptcy -Processing of money -Punishment for counterfeiting -Post office and post roads -Promote science and arts -Tribunals -Punishments of piracies and felonies on high seas, offenses against law of nations -War, letters of marque, reprisal, capturing of land and water -Armies -Navy -Regulation of land and naval forces -Calling of militia -Organizing, arming, disciplining, governing, and reserving militia -Exercising exclusive legislation -Necessary and proper clause i. section 9: Limits on Legislative power -migration and importation of persons -Habeas corpus -No attainder or ex post facto law -Capitation or other direct tax -Tax or duty -Preference by regulation of commerce or revenue -Money drawn from treasury -Titles of nobility j. section 10: Limits on states -No treaties -No posting of duties -No duty of tonnage, keeping troops, ships, entering into agreements, engaging in war III. Article II : The Presidency a. section 1: Election, Installation, Removal -Rules of term -4 year term -Guidelines of election -Instructions for electors -Time of choosing electors -Guidelines for Presidential candidate -Must be a natural born citizen -Must be 14 years a resident of U.S. -Must be 35 years old -Compensation -Must take Oath or Affirmation b. section 2: Presidential power -Military and pardoning -Treaties and appointment of ambassadors -Filling vacancies in senate c. section 3: State of the Union, receive ambassadors, laws faithfully executed commission officers d. section 4: Impeachment IV. Article III : The Judiciary a. section 1: Judicial power given b. section 2: Extent of Judicial power -Specifics of extent of judicial power -Original and appellate jurisdiction -Trials by jury c. section 3: Treason -Definition and conviction of Treason -Punishment of treason V. Article IV : The States a. section 1: Full faith and credit given -Privileges of citizens -Convicted people who leave state jurisdiction b. section 2: Privileges and immunities, Extradition, Fugitive slaves c. section 3: Admission of States d. section 4: Guarantees to States -Republican form of government -Protect against invasion -Protect against invasion when deemed necessary by legislature VI. Article V : The amendment process -2/3 house of representatives must agree to present amendment -or 2/3 of state legislature must approve - ? of the senate must agree to get it into the constitution I. Article VI : Legal Status of the Constitution A. Bill of rights a. Amendment 1 : Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly, Petition- 1791 b. Amendment 2 : Right to bear arms- 1791 c. Amendment 3 : Quartering of Troops- 1791 d. Amendment 4 : Search and Seizure-1791 e. Amendment 5 : Grand Jury, Double Jeopardy, Self- Incrimination, Due Process-1791 f. Amendment 6 : Criminal prosecutions - Jury trial, right to confront and counsel-1791 g. Amendment 7 : Common law suits - Jury trial-1791 h. Amendment 8 : Excess bail or fines, cruel and unusual punishment- 1791 i. Amendment

Social Justice essays

Social Justice essays In this section, we studied Doing Faithjustice by Fred Kammer, S.J. Through this article, we have learned the definition of justice as well as how to approach injustice as a Catholic Christian. Kammer explains that our world is inevitable structured in order to attempt to make life easier. However, sometimes these structures are organized in such a way that people are hurt (physically, economically, emotionally, etc.). Working for justice, he says, is formulating a plan to reform or remove these structures, and then executing this plan. Our previous studies of the Gospel of Luke explain to us the extent to which we should work at achieving this justice. Jesus devoted his life to the reform of the immoral aspects of his society, and expects us to do them same, despite any hardships. Jesus said, You will be betrayed even by parents and brothers...You will be hated by all because of my name... Based on our studies of both the Gospel according to Luke and Fred Kammers Doing Faithjustice, we can narrow the Catholic Christian definition of justice into a concise statement. Justice is, upon the analysis of our society, the correction of the structures (people, places, processes) deemed immoral. According to Kammer, this correction must be achieved through a structured as well as personal response to the systems that are not working well. The Gospel according to Luke teaches the importance of this response action through the example of Jesus. Through the integration of our knowledge and our faith as our inspiration, we are called to act against any opposition to our definition of justice. ...

Clock Manufacturing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Clock Manufacturing - Essay Example All cuckoo clocks sold and manufactured within Austria have to comply with this new standard. However this new technical standard was not informed to the European Commission. European Parliament and Council Directive 98/34 on the provision of information in the field of technical standards, require that all new technical standards be notified to the Commission before they are brought into force. Secondly, from November 2005, following complaints from German trading standards officers about the poor quality of some cuckoo-clocks exported from Austria, all cuckoo clocks which did not meet the new technical standards specified were prohibited from being exported to countries outside Austria to preserve the reputation of the clock manufacturing tradition. This new legal provision was again not notified to the Commission. Considering these new standards and legal provisions in place and the fact that the European Commission has not been informed either of the new standards in place or the changes to legal provisions for export of clocks from Austria, legal advice on manufacturing and export/import issues could be given to the clients. The role of the direct effects of directives and access to justice for individuals with employment rights seem to be central in such situations1. Differentiating direct and indirect effects, indirect effects apply to a principle in EU law stating that EU directives are capable of dis-applying laws of member states if these laws are not approved by the EU under certain circumstances2. Thus in EU a directive is a legislative order requiring implementation by every member state of the union. Member states however do have the freedom to implement their own laws, yet they must comply with the aims of the original directives3. In contrast, regulations imply a single law that is directly effective on each Member state. EU law has the provision for incidental effects which is used in association with indirect effects of EU directives for suits that are filed against individuals4. An individual cannot be sued for failure to comply with EU directives. In a similar case C-194/94 CIA Security International SA v. Signalson SA and Securitel Sprl ([1996] ECR I-2201, the CIA had attempted to distribute a burglar alarm in Belgium which was not in accordance with the technical specifications laid out by the Belgian authorities. Yet, since the Belgian government had failed to inform the EU on these specifications, as required by a directive in 1983, the court ruled that this constituted a disrespect or degradation of the effectiveness of the EU directives. The EU directives are meant to remove barriers to trade within the EU5, and that the Belgian government's breach of this directive made the Belgian law inapplicable to individuals. This assignment is done to advise the clients Andreas, Bergland and Christina, who are facing similar problems and the cases for each are given below. The Legal Provisions: A new technical standard for Austrian cuckoo clock manufacturing was introduced in 2005 and this is a standard laid down by the Austrian authorities. The new regulations and legal standards that all manufacturers and sellers of Austrian clocks are required to follow are given in the context of advice to three clients namely Andreas, Bergland and Christina. The three cases are discussed separately according to the legal provisions available and the legal regulations

Analysis of the Affordable Care Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis of the Affordable Care Act - Essay Example Republicans, on the other hand, provided an alternative where employees would buy instead of employers. A stalemate arose and the bill did not pass. Obama introduced the bill again in 2009 and it stipulated a plan that would achieve the needed healthcare plan for the sake of meeting the main ideals of the organization. Universal care was one of the stated goals to assist in pushing the bill into an Act through the two houses (Barr, 2011). Opposition to the bill was overwhelming from Republicans and protests were initiated to fight against its discussion. Voting, however, made the Democrats win by 60-39 vote thereby ending the debate on the bill in December 2009 (McDonough, 2011). Nonetheless, President Obama signed it into an Act on March 2010. Many termed it as the best overhaul of the healthcare system after Medicaid and Medicare (Jacobs & Skocpol, 2010). More people were insured and subsidies lowered costs by 76% for citizens who qualified for subsidies. Insurance companies now had more clients to cater for, but the law was on guard to protect them. More were eligible to Medicaid. The Act reduced the number of uninsured by 32 million, and only 23 million would be uninsured after 2019 (McDonough, 2011). Implementation process was expensive as more people would have to get into the system and the taxpayers had to give more to meet these expenses. Complications also arose as a result of the individual mandate when it comes to the filing of taxes because of the exemption fee offered to those who can afford health coverage (Jacobs & Skocpol, 2010). Options are man but the pricing will differ amongst private companies, and that makes it difficult to equate healthcare everywhere. The tiered healthcare system would only equate healthcare to money, which is damning for the poor. Medicare payments are more for doctors than other payments, making healthcare costlier for the poor (Feldman, 2011). Partisan disagreements in the Congress have made it

Does Shaming Work as a Crime Control Policy Essay

Does Shaming Work as a Crime Control Policy - Essay Example For the past two decades, proposals demanding for the adoption of alternative punishments have received much interest partly because there are presently more than 2 million people in federal and state penitentiaries (Kahan, 2006). Disappointed by the obvious failure of the criminal justice system to trim down offender populations at an acceptable cost, different intellectuals with distinct political objectives have suggested more cost-effective and more efficient techniques to diminish numbers of prisoners and reduce recidivism. Several of these alternative crime control methods are innately stigmatic and do not require imprisonment, like degrading community service, criminal fines, and, most contentiously, shaming sanctions. This paper analyzes and determines the nature and effectiveness of shaming sanctions. Shaming Sanctions: Does it Work? Legal scholars have largely focused on alternatives to imprisonment. Even though general alliances support further implementation of alternative punishments as a major issue, heightened academic debate has revolved around the adoption of shaming sanctions. Shaming sanctions are punishments intended to debase and stigmatize a criminal in public while encouraging a certain extent of public involvement in that debasement and stigmatization (Marshall, 2001). Specifically, a shaming punishment â€Å"exposes the offender to public view and heap[s] ignominy upon him in a way that other alternative sanctions to imprisonment, like fines and community service, do not† (Markel, 2001, 2155).

The India-Pakistan Relationship

The India-Pakistan Relationship India Pakistan relationship has been marred with conflict ever since their independence and both the nations have been involved in three major wars till date in1947-48, 1965 and 1971. In 1998, both countries conducted nuclear tests to enter the nuclear powered nations club. This led a few number of experts to profess that the nuclear deterrence would lead to stabilization of conflict in the sub continent and result in establishment of peace. This kind of deterrence was witnessed by the world for the second time, the first being nuclear deterrence between the cold war foes of NATO and Warsaw Pact countries and to be more specific the US and USSR. Experts from the field of international relations who applied the theories developed in the cold war era Europe to the South Asian rivalry professed that the chances of conventional conflict using regular forces are a thing of the past in case of these two nations. This theory was further reinforced by the Kargil war and the standoff subsequ ent to the attack on Indian Parliament in 2001. In 1999 Pakistan occupied a large number of posts after crossing the LOC in the Kargil sector, threatening the crucial Srinagar Leh highway using regular troops in the guise of Mujahids. The Indian Army reacted to the situation by regrouping and launching Operation Vijay, and started to recapture the posts by forcibly removing Pakistani troops occupying the posts. This operation was also accompanied by a full scale mobilisation of its military forces by India; however despite the tough posturing by India the war remain limited to the Kargil sector. This was primarily because of tremendous pressure mounted by the international community, especially the US fearing that this conflict may escalate to a nuclear plain. In 2001 the same massive mobilisation was witnessed by both the countries when they had their forces deployed against each other ready for combat. This time in December 2001 following the attack on the Indian parliament by a group of militants trained in Pakistan. The situation reached a flash point when on 14 May 2002, when another terrorist attack on the Indian Army camp in Kaluchak threatened to start a war between the two nuclear neighbours. In this instance also, as seen in Operation Vijay, India despite posturing did not take any punitive offensive action against Pakistan despite having all its forces in a completely mobilized state. The above incidents did reflect a situation where in Pakistan had effectively used the nuclear deterrence to attain strategic parity with India negating a conventional disadvantage and thus supposedly giving it immunity to conduct sub conventional operations without the fear of any retribution. Thus India to face major challenges in conducting sub conventional spectrum in Kashmir, which Pakistan initiated after covertly attaining the nuclear technology in the late 1980s. Its conventional strength negated, and with no option to retaliate India find itself in a position where it will have to work its way around this nuclear parity, so as to be able to stifle the Pakistan supported terrorism. Therefore, we need to carefully study the nuclear capability and doctrine of Pakistan in conjunction with the theories of nuclear deterrence, to work out ways for India to exploit its massive conventional superiority by utilizing it to escalate the conflict spectrum, such that it remains under the level of Total War. METHODOLOGY STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM To analyze nuclear deterrence in India Pakistan relations. Explore the possibility of use of conventional forces by India to counter the sub conventional threat faced from Pakistan, while avoiding a nuclear war. HYPOTHESIS Having attained nuclear capability Pakistan has been acting with a presumption that Indias conventional superiority has been totally negated by the nuclear symmetry and has encouraged the Pakistani military elite to intensify the ongoing Proxy War in Jammu and Kashmir. This has had catastrophic consequences for India, which though enjoying substantial conventional superiority, is unable to use it to counter Pakistans sub conventional threat. It is therefore important to study the interaction between conventional and nuclear deterrence on the India Pakistan relations and generate credible conventional responses to the sub conventional conflict India finds itself embroiled in Jammu and Kashmir. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY Indian armed forces along with paramilitary forces are deeply committed in counterinsurgency operations in Jammu Kashmir, which is fallout of the sub conventional operations by Pakistan in the state. This has been possible due to the fact, that Pakistan has been able to achieve strategic parity with India by attaining nuclear capability which affords it certain degree of immunity from direct retaliation through conventional means by Indian forces. Off late, the thought process in higher echelons of Indian leadership has been to ascertain What should be Indias response, should Pakistan continue with its sub conventional campaign? While a majority of international relation theorists who studied the nuclear deterrence during the cold war, suggest that the likelihood of a conventional conflict between two nuclear armed rivals are slim, as it leads to a situation of mutually assured destruction (MAD). However, it would be injudicious to apply these theories in their entirety in the Indo Pak context, as the conditions and realties that exist in South Asia are considerably different than that of the cold war. Thus there exists a window for vertical escalation of the ongoing sub conventional engagement which is below the nuclear threshold. This would however depend on Pakistans response to a conventional threat, as it the weaker party. Thus any suggested response for India should also carefully consider the Pakistani nuclear capability and doctrine as well, so as to work out practical options for use of conventional military and allow India to effectively counter its asymmetric threat. This study is thus aimed at ascertaining the possibility of a conventional war between India and Pakistan without it getting escalated to a total war. SCOPE The paper concentrates on analysing the effect of nuclear deterrence on India and Pakistan relations, applicability of various international relation theories on this relationship and possibility of use of conventional forces by India as counter to proxy war waged by Pakistan while staying below the nuclear threshold. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION The methodology employed in this investigation to gather information and data was as follows: Scanning of literature on nuclear capability and doctrines of India and Pakistan. Study of various International Relation theories worked out to explain the superpower relations during the cold war. Scanning various articles and books by authors concerning the nuclear situation in South Asia. A bibliography of sources studied and referred has been appended at the end of the text. ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION (CHAPTERISATION) The dissertation has been carried out in the following parts:- Chapter I Introduction. The background, introduction to the subject and methodology will be covered in this chapter. Chapter II Deterrence In Context Of India Pakistan Relations. This chapter will cover the theoretical aspects of deterrence and its applicability in the context of India Pakistan relationship. Chapter III Nuclear Peace Hypothesis : Manifestation in India Pakistan Relations. This chapter will study the hypothesis of nuclear peace as propounded by academic experts of international relations and analyse the India Pakistan relations in its light. Chapter IV Pakistans Nuclear Weapons Capability And Command Control Setup. This chapter deals with the nuclear weapons capability that Pakistan possesses, to include its weapon system and delivery platforms, as well as the nuclear command and control setup. Chapter V Nuclear Weapon Use by Pakistan : Probability and Scenarios. This chapter will concentrate on the probability of nuclear weapon use by Pakistan and the various scenarios in which they are likely to be used. Chapter VI Options Available To India For Use Of Conventional Forces. This chapter will study the options available with India to use conventional force to deter Pakistan from undertaking sub conventional operations in Kashmir. Chapter VII Conclusion. The conclusion of the paper and appropriate recommendations will be made in this chapter. CHAPTER II DETERRENCE IN CONTEXT OF INDIA PAKISTAN RELATIONS We will not prematurely or unnecessarily risk the costs of worldwide nuclear war in which even the fruits of victory would be ashes in our mouth. John F. Kennedy The word deterrence comes from the latin verb deterree, which means to frighten. It is an attempt to influence how and what an enemy thinks and does  [1]  . Thus deterrence is a state of mind that prevents a deterree from acting in a way a deterror considers harmful. In a simplistic form, deterrence is a crucial factor in the mind of someone trying to decide the benefits of executing a crime versus the likelihood and consequences of getting caught  [2]  . The success or failure of deterrence also depends upon how the message is conveyed by the deterror to the deterree. In order to elucidate this aspect, the situation before the two Gulf Wars needs to be considered and understood which highlights the importance of how the deterrence message is framed and understood, as well as how disastrous it can be to fail to understand the thinking of the other side. Before Saddam Hussain invaded Kuwait in August 1990, the US diplomatic and political positioning was such that it failed to give a clear message that it would react strongly to any Iraqi invasion. Hence failure to clearly convey deterrence between the sides, ultimately lead to the war. The example brings into play the lesser known twin of deterrence which is compellance  [3]  . Deterrence can also be defined as the prevention of action for fear of the consequences, brought about by the existence of a credible threat of unacceptable counteraction. Thus, it is designed to prevent something. Compellance on the other hand involves threat of consequences designed to cause the other party to reverse or to stop carrying out some unwanted action or activity, which has already occurred, the result is war. Similar analysis could be applied to the Cuban Missile Crisis, where initial misunderstandings lead to the failure of both deterrence and compellance. One could also use the word coercion to cover both deterrence and compellance. Another associated question  [4]  with the concept of deterrence which arises is How much is enough? Since deterrence is essentially a psychological phenomenon, it is not surprising that how much punishment is sufficient to deter another state, which has always been a controversial and an elastic standard. Types of Military Deterrence Military deterrence are of two kinds defensive (conventional) and by punitive (nuclear)  [5]  . Effective deterrence is a matter of convincing an opponent that certain harm to him will accompany the act one wishes to deter. Thus it amounts to the imposition of a calculus of risk and value on an opponent, such that the value of the act sought to be deterred does not exceed the risk, which is an assessment of the likelihood and the extent of harm. For deterrence to succeed, the enemy has to be persuaded that the deterror has the capacity to act, in a manner that it inflicts greater cost than the advantages to be won by attaining the objective, and that it would actually undertake the act if it is required to. However if the deterror takes the threat of retaliation into account, he can no longer deter all objectionable acts. Thus making it obligatory on the deterror to distinguish between those objectives of indispensable value such as national survival, and objects of relatively l ess importance/value. While in the overall gambit of geopolitics there are large number of instruments of state power which work to deter an adversary, to include but not limited to, political, economic, diplomatic, military power. However in purely military terms deterrence is of two types:- Conventional Deterrence. This is the deterrence accrued by a nation owing to it possessing a higher military strength, which would mean quality and quantity of hardware as well as trained military force. This spectrum of military power will include land, air and naval forces. This type of deterrence can be easily achieved by the nation which has a larger resource base both in terms of population as well as economic capital. Therefore, in a bilateral conflict the country which is larger in size tends to be the nation which generally has more deterrent potential (militarily), as it is assumed that it can not only maintain a larger force but would also be able to sustain the conflict much longer. Nuclear Deterrence. This is the deterrence accrued by a nation when it possesses a nuclear weapon, and is studied separately because nuclear weapon exchange is likely to have such substantial effect to both the parties that it would force any nation irrespective of its size to ponder on the effects of such an engagement, hence forcing the dilemma of cost-benefit ratio in the minds of leaders of both the sides. Thus a weaker/smaller nation which faces a superior nation always opts for a nuclear deterrence, as was evident after the end of the Second World War, wherein the United States laid emphasis on developing its nuclear arsenal to counter the numerical superiority of the erstwhile USSR. Nuclear deterrence theory consists of six key elements  [6]  , which have to be satisfied to be of any effect, these are:- The assumption of a very severe conflict. The assumption of rationality. The concept of retaliatory threat. The concept of unacceptable damage. The notion of credibility. The notion of deterrence stability. Conventional Deterrence in Relation of India Pakistan India as a nation possesses all ingredients to effectively deter Pakistan in as far as conventional deterrence is concerned. However, this was not always the case, as after independence being of roughly comparable size both in economic and military strengths, India had limited deterrent capability. Although India did enjoy numerical superiority in its armed forces it was hardly sufficient to act as a deterrent for its new neighbour, coupled with the fact that Pakistani military leadership wrongly hypothesised that there soldier were better than their Indian counterparts and any advantage accrued due to numerical superiority was more than compensated. Their belief of superiority was further fortified when as part of its alliance with the US they received technologically advanced weaponry hence achieving qualitative edge over India. This myth carried by the Pakistani elite for a considerable period of time, manifested in the various wars which the two nations have since fought. However this misconception of its superior relative strength came crashing on the Pakistani leadership in 1971 when facing the full potential of the Indian military, it was not only defeated convincingly but also lead to it being bifurcated. Post 1971 there was no conventional conflict as India successfully deterred Pakistan, which till then was always the aggressor. This deterrence that India possessed was for the following reason:- Conventional superiority of the Indian military infrastructure both as quantitatively well as qualitatively. Economic superiority, considering the size of Indian economy vis-à  -vis that of Pakistan. Diplomatic strength wherein India had a larger clout in the comity of nations including Islamic states, being considered a peace loving nation which is actively involved in various international forums. Effectiveness of Conventional Deterrence Against Pakistan India Pakistan relationship is going through a period during which no conventional conflict has occurred between them for a long time. However, this period does not signify that of peace as India has been facing a heightened level of sub conventional threat in Kashmir from Pakistan. So the question which arises is that has India been able to achieve effective deterrence against Pakistan or not? The extent and severity of the sub conventional threat that India faced in Kashmir is clearly brought out by the figure 1. FIGURE 1 : FATALITY LEVELS IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR  [7]   The details given above make it clearly evident that though India may have deterred a conventional conflict but the same may not hold true for the sub conventional spectrum. This can be attributed to the attainment of nuclear weapons capability by Pakistan as the threat of conventional conflict reduced Pakistan adopted an aggressive policy of sub conventional operations against India  [8]  . Thus providing a political lever to the Pakistani ruling class to be exploited in international as well as national arena, while reducing the efficacy of Indian Army by embroiling it in asymmetric warfare leading to a classical case of Stability Instability Paradox, which is defined as under:- To the extent that the military balance is stable at the level of all out nuclear war, it will become less stable at lower levels of violence  [9]  . Another expert elaborates; nuclear weapons can generate risk taking because they presumably provide an insurance policy against escalation  [10]  . 23. Hence it is pertinent to note that while India enjoys substantial conventional deterrence the same seems to be ineffective when faced with a nuclear adversary which is undertaking a sub conventional operation against it. Therefore, a thorough analysis would be necessary to ascertain whether India can utilize its conventional superiority and come out of the stability-instability logjam, thus leading to the end of strife in Kashmir. The only example which can be studied to derive suitable future courses of action would be the nuclear deterrence between the NATO and the Warsaw pact countries during the cold war. This nuclear relationship was studied extensively and a number of international relation theories formalized to explain the interaction between the two parties. The most prominent of these hypotheses, forwarded by international relations experts, in as far as conflict involving nuclear states are concerned is the Nuclear Peace Hypothesis which may shed some light on the stat us of the current relations between India and Pakistan. However the theories evolved in a different set of situations may not be fully applicable to India Pakistan relations and thus require suitable modifications to be relevant. And is it possible, at least theoretically, for India to escalate the conflict to conventional level. CHAPTER III NUCLEAR PEACE HYPOTHESIS : MANIFESTATION IN INDIA PAKISTAN RELATIONS No explanation for the current strategic situation is satisfactory without a definition of the nuclear situation; no definition of the nuclear situation is possible without knowledge of the laws that rule deterrence. Andre Beaufre Do nuclear weapons reduce the probability of war? From the starting days of the nuclear weapon development, proponents of nuclear deterrence argued that these weapons have the capacity to reduce the probability of conventional war resulting in what may be called as the Nuclear Peace. Studying the dynamics of the Cold War, some scholars have argued that this is indeed what happened. Despite large number of crises and several proxy wars, the US and USSR avoided a direct military confrontation as both feared an escalation to a nuclear plain. They suggest that unlike conventional deterrence, nuclear deterrence is extremely robust because even irrational or unintelligent leaders are likely to recognize the exceedingly high cost of nuclear war. Therefore, proponents of nuclear deterrence claim with a high degree of confidence that the probability of major war among states having nuclear weapons approaches zero. Although Cold War was fierce but it never did escalate to World War III. Indeed, some experts argue that Cold War can be thought of as the Long Peace. And despite the collapse of Eastern Block and the end of Cold War the relative period of peace continues. However, other forms of warfare (sub conventional, asymmetric warfare, etc.) have been seen in various parts of the world but no major war has broken out. So what is responsible for the absence of major wars between great powers after WWII? The three main schools of international relations (IR) theorists have each offered answers to this question  [11]  . Neo-Liberalism. As per Neo-liberals democracy, trade and international organizations are the key causes of peace. Constructivism. While constructivists view democracy, trade, and international organizations as important factors, argue that the main facilitator of the Long Peace are the evolving norms and the social construction of identity. Neo-realism. They attribute peace during the Cold War to bipolarity and nuclear deterrence. Robert Rauchhaus has quantitatively evaluated the nuclear peace hypothesis and his findings indicate that the impact of nuclear weapons is more complicated than is conventionally appreciated  [12]  . He further theorizes that when nuclear asymmetry exists between two states, a greater chance of military disputes and war exists. In contrast, when there is symmetry and both states possess nuclear weapons, then the odds of war drop drastically. When combined, these findings provide support for the existence of the stability instability paradox. Evidence suggests that while nuclear weapons promote strategic stability, they simultaneously allow for more risk-taking in lower intensity disputes. He thus gives out the following hypotheses:- Hypothesis 1. The probability of major war between two states will decrease if both states possess nuclear weapons  [13]  . Hypothesis 2. The probability of crisis initiation and limited uses of force between two states will increase when both states possess nuclear weapons  [14]  . Hypothesis 3. The probability of major war between two states will decrease or remain constant if one state possesses nuclear weapons  [15]  . Hypothesis 4. The probability of lower level conflicts will decrease or remain the same if one state possesses nuclear weapons  [16]  . Applicability of Nuclear Peace Hypothesis in India Pakistan Relations Having studied the various nuclear peace hypotheses, it will be clear that the first two would be applicable in the context of India Pakistan relations, as both countries are nuclear states. These hypotheses do hold considerably well, when we see them in relation to India Pakistan conflict, the same has been discussed in subsequent sub paragraphs:- Hypothesis 1. The probability of major war between two states will decrease if both states possess nuclear weapons  [17]  . Relations between India and Pakistan have repeatedly reached flashpoints wherein they were dangerously close to an all out war ( Kargil 1999, Op Parakaram 2001) but they somehow manged to avoid escalating the conflict into an open war, hence maintaining strategic peace. This hypothesis may also apply to the pre 1998 era where in both the nations had acquired nuclear capability but had still not come out in open. India although having conducted its first nuclear test in 1974 is said to have acquired operational capability only in early 1980s, while Pakistan is said to have attained the capability somewhere between 1986 and 1990. Hypothesis 2. The probability of crisis initiation and limited uses of force between two states will increase when both states possess nuclear weapons  [18]  . If we study the trend of sub conventional operations by Pakistan in Kashmir it would be clearly evident that the same was initiated by Pakistan on covertly acquiring the nuclear capability during the period mentioned  [19]  and then again given a fresh impetus after the 1998 nuclear tests. Thus it may be theorised, that Pakistan has used nuclear deterrence to negate Indias conventional superiority, while engaging in a sub conventional conflict. This hypothesis is also called the Stability Instabilty Paradox which was first discussed in detail by Mr Snyder in an essay in 1965. The situation is such that terrorism has become the foremost issue, which divides India and Pakistan  [20]  . And while a cursory study of the above hypotheses may lead one to conclude that the probability of fighting a conventional war is bleak, it must be understood that though the hypothesis says that a major war is unlikely between India Pakistan, a major war is defined as when one of the nation wants to completely subject the other to its will  [21]  . This is in contrast the thinking of the present military leadership, which misunderstands it with any conflict in which conventional forces are used. Thus as per the hypothesis a repeat of 1971 war may be unfeasible, but a repeat of 1965 may be a possibility, till the time the aims of the conflict are limited and both the parties are clearly aware of the same. This does have a historical example, the Sino-Soviet dispute of 1968, where both the sides had nuclear capability but since the aims of the war were limited neither parties used a nuclear weapon even when faced with an adverse outcome. Therefore there is a case for India to utilise its conventional forces, to counter the Pakistan initiated proxy war, by initiating a punitive limited objective war with Pakistan, with the sole aim of deterring it from continuance of the sub conventional war in Kashmir. Applicability of Cold War International Theories in South Asia While there may have been the Long Peace during the cold war because of nuclear deterrence, but is it applicable to the Indo Pak relation? The answer to this question is more likely to be negative for the following reasons  [22]  :- While Pakistans security concern is India centric, those of India extend beyond South Asia. Thus the relation is not a standalone interaction but is subject to pressures from external factors, which are unpredictable. This is contrary to the relation dynamics of the cold war. India Pakistan also do not enjoy the same degree of independence of action, as was available to the US and USSR. This is due to the fact that, unlike the cold war rivals who were at the top of the power hierarchy, India and Pakistan will be subject to interference/influence in their policy and decision making processes. Geographical proximity of the two countries is also a facet which did not exist in the cold war and thus both countries will be affected by wind movements and fallout in case of a nuclear attack on the other. However, the foremost reason for non applicability of the theories in South Asia is because unlike the cold war where both the sides were led by satisfied powers i.e. the powers had accepted the status quo in Europe which was concretized by the Helsinki process, Pakistan is a revisionist state. Wherein Pakistan wants to change the status quo in South Asia w.r.t. Kashmir  [23]  . However to postulate feasibility for use of conventional forces for punitive action against Pakistan, it would be prudent to study Pakistans nuclear capabilities and command control setup besides the international relation theories. are feasible not only as per international relations theories but also practical in view of the nuclear weapons capability that Pakistan possesses and the nuclear command control structure it has in place to use a nuclear weapon against India. This is because to have an extremely low nuclear threshold, as Pakistan professes to have, it requires certain capabilities and infrastructure to be in place which is still deficient. Hence it is necessary to study the nuclear capability and command control setup of Pakistan. CHAPTER IV PAKISTANS NUCLEAR WEAPONS CAPABILITY AND COMMAND CONTROL SETUP Deterrence is greatest when military strength is coupled with the willingness to employ it. It is achieved when one sides readiness to run risks in relation to the other is high; it is least effective when the willingness to run risks is low, however powerful the military capability. Henry Kissinger The foundation for the India Pakistan conflict is complex, Pakistans fears about India are not only because of the imbalance of power and Indian ambition for regional power status, but also because of the pre Partition conflict and divergent ideas of nationalism  [24]  . Since independence the relations between the two countries have never been normal or even

Good and Evil in Quinns Ishmael Essay -- Daniel Quinn essays research

Human beings are destroying the world. It's a fact we all know. Pollution is abundant, we chop down rain forests, we kill our own kind, we steal, lie, and cheat, and the list could go on and on. Daniel Quinn believes that this destruction comes from something more extreme than just the notion to survive. In his novel, Ishmael, Quinn believes that the problems facing humanity are do to man's knowledge of good and evil.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Man's knowledge of good and evil gives us the power to rule the world any way we please. A God or Gods no longer have control. Once Adam, who represents the life of the human race, took a bite from the fruit of the tree of knowledge man's fate was sealed. This knowledge insured, "Man was born to rule the world" (165). To man this knowledge is the greatest of all. Becau...

Code of Conduct and Policies for Meal and Snack Time

Unit 001 Introduction to Communication in Health, Social Care or Children’s and Young People’s Settings. Outcome 1 Reasons why people communicate People communicate because they feel the need to express themselves when they feel the need to chat or discuss or pass on information to an individual person or a group of people. How does effective communication affect all aspects of work? Effective communication affects all aspects of your own work in many ways.If the correct information is given in the first place then nothing should go wrong as in any misconception of what has been passed on. (If everyone involved is singing from the same song sheet then nothing can go wrong ! ) Also by being effective with your communication means that everyone is working to the same standards of work and hopefully in a consistent manner. Why do you think it is important to observe individual’s reactions when communicating with them?It is important to observe individual’s re actions when communicating with them because you can identify if they agree or not with you or if they fully understand what the information is actually being verbally passed onto them at that time. You can observe this by their body language and facial expressions. These can both determine if they are showing any positive or negative behavioural and or facial expressions. Positive being – Good eye contact / Nodding of the head/Agreeing to what is being said. Negative being – Poor eye contact or lack of/Frowning/Arms folded crossed. Candidate Jo Davies-Collins

Effects Of Globalization On An Organization The WritePass Journal

Effects Of Globalization On An Organization 1.0 Introduction Effects Of Globalization On An Organization from http://rosalinda.ingentaselect.com/wb/wpaperspdf/3069.pdf Black, Sandra E.; Brainerd, Elizabeth. 2002. Importing equality? The impact of globalization on gender discrimination. NBER Working Paper No. 9110 (Aug.). Cambridge, MA, National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved August, 15, 2013 from www.nber.org/papers/ w9110.pdf Boyer, Robert; Drache, Daniel (eds.). 1996. States against markets: The limits of globalization. London: Routledge. Carr, M. Chen, M. A. 2001. Globalization and the informal economy: How global trade and investment impact on the working poor. International Labour Organization. Retrieved August, 15, 2013 from ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_122053.pdf FAO .2004. Trends and Current Status of the Contribution of the Forest Sector to National Economies, FAO Working Paper FSFM/ACC/07.   Forest Products and Economics Division, Rome: FAO.. Klein, N. 2000. No Logo. London: Harper Perennial. Oxfam America. 2002. Global finance hurts the poor: Analysis of the impact of North-Southprivate capital flows on growth, inequality and poverty. Boston: MA. Ritzer, G. 2000. The McDonaldization of Society. California: Pine Forge Press. Rodrik, Dani. 2001. The global governance of trade as if development really mattered. Background paper for the Trade and Sustainable Human Development Project, UNDP. New York: UNDP. Stiglitz, Joseph E. 2003. The roaring nineties: A new history of the world’s most prosperous decade. New York: W.W. Norton Company. Thomas, F. 2000. One Market Under God. London: Seeker Warburg.

The Basis of Commerce in Al-Andalus essays

The Basis of Commerce in Al-Andalus essays Al-Andalus served as a shining star of Muslim commerce. Strict moral codes governed the operation of the marketplace. These codes were overseen and administered by a qadi (judge), also referred to as a muhtasib. Ibn Abduns Hisba Manual examines market regulations in Muslim Seville . The selected document is from a larger work by Ibn Abdun, Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople. The reader learns from the introduction that the author of the document was most likely a qadi (judge) or what is also referred to as a muhtasib. The document briefly defines the role of a muhtasib as a market inspector. This definition fails in many details that would aid the reader in placing the document in a clear context. Contrary to the authors description of the hisba (text spelling) as a genre, within an Islamic text the meaning has a larger definition. Within the Islamic sphere the Hisbah is a religious institution under the authority of the state that appoints people to c arry out the responsibility of enjoining what is right, whenever people start to neglect it, and forbidding what is wrong, whenever people start to engage in it . Within the institution of the Hisbah the position of muhtasib exists, his position is not only one based on commerce (market inspector) but also one of a moral and religious nature. Al-Muhtasib is a judge (Qadi) who makes decisions on the spot, at any place and at any time, as long a he protects the interests of the public. His responsibilities are almost limitless in order to implement the following principle: commanding the good and forbidding the evil of wrongdoing. Al-Muhtasib as full judge must possess high qualifications of being wise, mature, pious, well-poised, sane, free, just, empathic, and learned scholar. He has the ability to ascertain right from wrong, and the capability to distinguish the permissible from the non- permissible . Placing the docume...

Marketing Strategy of The Eastman Kodak Company Coursework

Marketing Strategy of The Eastman Kodak Company - Coursework Example In the early and mid-nineties, Kodak grew as a company and started developing new and improved models of their cameras. They developed the ‘Kodacolor range’ which included motion picture films, camera and projectors. These were sold at affordable prices. They also provided cameras to the U.S. Government for aerial photography during the First World War They didn’t stop there. They then introduced the ‘Instamatic camera’ which revolutionized the way people used cameras. It became a household item for amateur photographers because of its versatility and affordability. Today, however, the iconic brand is on its knees. This is because of the digital age. Kodak was slow in adapting to new-age digital technology, unlike the predecessors who were drivers of technology in the industry with their wide array of innovative patents. Where did Kodak go wrong? Well, there’s a couple of contributing factors. First off, Kodak used a high-velocity revenue model which entailed making profits off complimentary products to their cameras, i.e. the reel used by the camera. Their strategy was typically to sell cameras at a low cost, and let the film reel fuel its growth and profits. This meant the business was heavily dependant on this particular rigid model. Kodak was to pay the price for this rigidity soon enough. This came in the form of competition from overseas. The Japanese firm Fuji Film came into America and caught Kodak napping. They introduced reel that was one-fifth cheaper than Kodak’s offering. The result was devastating for Kodak, and even then their lack of market agility was evident by their slow reaction to the market. Further proof of the business’ inability to adapt to changing technology in the industry came in the early eighties when Sony Corporation ushered in the digital age with the release of the ‘Mavica’, a filmless digital camera that displayed photos directly on the user’s television sets. Pictures could also be printed if desired.

Management Communication Quarterly Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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What is War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

What is War - Essay Example As the report declares organizational change and technology has played a vital role in the origin of warfare. The advancement of technology has led to a rise in the destructiveness and cost of warfare throughout human history. According to paper findings there have been different reasons behind the wars that have been fought earlier. Looking deeper into the history we find that wars have been mostly fought for serious moral reasons. Although there have been many ancient nations and some more modern ones who have thought of war as to be noble, but the thought of war being moral has been increasingly pondered about. In today’s era, most nations and people have come to the conclusion that war is ‘undesirable and morally problematic’ and have declared that wars should only be fought when there is no other way out. There is a specific cateogry of people that known as pacifists, who believe that war is innately immoral and no war should ever be fought. The negative view of war has not always been condemned widely as it is today. Today, some see only Just Wars as legitimate, and it is the goal of organizations such as the United Nations to unite the world against wars of unjust aggression. Wit h the passsage of time different societies have attempted to limit the cost of war by formalizing it in some way. There have been limitations set on targeting innocent civilians, on what type of weapons should be used. Although culture, law, and religion have been the vital factors in causing wars, they have also proved to be restraints at times.

The various market entry strategies Essay Example for Free

The various market entry strategies Essay Research Objectives: This research is undertaken to identify, analyze and evaluate the various market entry strategies in global markets. Specifically, the research will examine exporting, franchising, acquisition, merger, wholly owned subsidiaries and joint ventures. Furthermore, the research will also analyze entry strategies implemented by a number of multinational corporations operating in different industries. Finally, the research will conclude with the factors that need to be examined and investigated before entering a global market. General Introduction: Multinational firms deciding how to enter or operate in a global market must carefully and precisely take into consideration many critical factors including the local business environment in addition to the firm’s own core competencies. An entry mode is defined by Wild Wild (2012) as â€Å"the institutional arrangement by which a firm gets its products, technologies, human skills, or other resources into a market.† (Wild Wild, 2012, p.358) Wheleen Hunger (2010) stated that research had indicated that growing globally is linked with the organization’s profitability. This means that firm’s who are looking for ways to increase their long-term profitability, are now looking for profitable and appropriate markets to offer their products and or services. A firm can select from a number of strategic options the most appropriate method for entering a global market or establishing production plans in another nation. Zekiri Angelova (2011) argued that Firms that want to internationalize must decide on a fitting mode of entry into a foreign market in order to make the best use of their resources. â€Å"The age of globalization has both facilitated and necessitated businesses to move towards the internationalization of organizations of all sizes.† (Wood and Robertson, as cited in Zekiri Angelova, 2011, p.573). There are many different modes of entering into foreign markets. Each mode has its strengths and weaknesses in general terms. However, Zekiri (2011) explained that each single multinational firm would be more attracted to a type mode depending on their backgrounds, nature of the company, strategic objectives as well as the resources. In many cases, there are many obstacles that companies have to meet while deciding to enter other markets, for example; safety, environmental, packaging, labeling, patents, trademarks and copyrights, are factors that businesses depend on being successful. Moreover, It should be stated that the local business environment in terms of political, technological, legal, environmental, and cultural factors should be deeply studied to assess the attractiveness of the target market. This argument is also supported by Zekiri Angelova (2011) as he stated â€Å"it is difficult to understand the business environment in a country without studying the current politic al system and institutions, government policies, and a variety of data and other information on the country’s economy.† (Zekiri, 2011, p.573) Kotler Armstrong (2008) as well as Chung Enderwich (2001) explained that some of the benefits associated with operating on international basis are the increased profits and sales growth, the chances of achieving both economies of scale and location economies. Zekiri Angelova (2011) also added that many firms are operating on international basis for better opportunities and profit potential in emerging markets such as (India, China, Brazil and Russia) As globalization now is fostering international operations as nations are being more open to trade and foreign investment opportunities. Global Market Entry Strategies: Advantages and Disadvantages Exporting: According to many researchers including Wheleen Hunger (2010), Kotler Armstrong (2009), and Chung Enderwich (2011) exporting is one of the most basic and simplest entry strategies as it minimizes the risk and experiment with a specific product. Shaver (2009) defined exporting as â€Å"the production of goods at home that are sold in foreign markets.† (Shaver, 2009, p.1047) in other words, products are shipped from the home country to other countries for marketing. Wheleen Hunger (2010) stated that the company could either choose to handle all critical functions itself or could contract these functions to export management companies. The main benefits of exporting are its simplicity and low cost of investment and risk. Consequently, exporting could be seen as the first entry method used by organizations in order to obtain knowledge of the foreign market. Other advantages of exporting are increased utilization of the domestic plant, thus using idle capacity and reducing unit costs through economies of scale. Exporting also helps in diversifying markets, which reduces the company’s exposure to domestic demand instability. On the other hand, the disadvantages of exporting include high transportation fees trade barriers, tariffs, quotas, and problems with local agents. In addition, exporters have lower control of distribution and local agents. Moreover, Shaver (2009) noted that companies engaging in exporting could face the potential risk of exchange rate fluctuations, and could be subject to custom duties and taxes in the importing counties. Zekiri Angelova (2011) although exporting costs are relatively low compared with the other entry methods, to enter and develop these markets exporters usually incur costs to gain exposure, set up sales and distribution networks, and attract customers. Furthermore, cultural barriers could forces companies to modify or redesign their products including labeling and packaging for the purpose of meeting consumers’ preferences/tastes and local requirements. From on own point of view, which was not discussed by any of the previous authors and researchers, is that exporting is hindering a firm’s ability to quickly respond to the changing needs of target consumers. Franchising: Franchising is one of the global entry modes that has been widely used as a quick method of global expansion, most notably by multinational fast food and retail chains such as (KFC, McDonalds, Starbucks). According to Wheleen Hunger (2010), under a franchising agreement, the franchiser offers rights to another party to open a retail store using the franchiser’s name and operating system. In other words, by the payment of a royalty fee, the franchisee will obtain the major business know-how via an agreement with the franchiser. Franchising is most commonly used in a number of American service industries, such as McDonald’s, KFC, and Starbucks etc. from an own point of view, franchisers are constantly demonstrating their ability to adapt and modify their product offering to suit local tastes and preferences. This is especially true in McDonald’s, which offers different menus in different nations. McDonald’s brand is still internationally consistent, but service staff and menu choices can be modified to local needs. According to Roland Berger Tata strategic management group (2009) McDonald’s in India was able to create localized products where it did not serve hamburger meals as some religions in India prohibits the consuming meat. Instead McDonald’s served vegetarian and chicken meals that gained the favorability of most Indian consumers. Holmes (2003) stated a major disadvantage associated with entering global markets via franchisee agreements. Firstly, he stated that franchisers might find it difficult to manage a large number of franchisees in a variety of national markets. The major issue in franchisee agreements is that product and service quality in addition to promotional messages among franchisees will not be consistent or similar from one market to another. Another major disadvantage discussed by Wild Wild (2012) is franchisees can experience a loss of organizational flexibility in franchising agreements. â€Å"Franchise contracts can restrict their strategic and tactical options and they may even be forced to promote products by the franchiser’s other division. Dahlstrom, Duncan, Ramsay, Amburgey (2004) explained that when PepsiCo used to own the global fast-food chains Pizza Hut and KFC, it used to force franchisees to sell its beverages to their consumers which gained the criticism of many franch isees worldwide. Acquisitions: As Wheleen Hunger (2010) explained a fast way used by heavy multinational corporations in different industries to operate into a desired and profitable global market is through â€Å"purchasing another company already operating in that area.† One of the benefits that he clearly discussed is the synergistic benefits could be acquired if the firm acquires another company having strong complementary product lines and a good distribution network. Lahovnik (2011) argued that acquisitions have been the most popular growth strategy for decades in the US economy. He explained that the 1990s and 2000s also featured a markedly increased volume of European mergers and acquisitions. Economic growth, deregulation and the development of the common European economy accelerated the acquisition process in EU countries. He also noted that the number of acquisitions has also risen in economies in transition. Horizontal acquisitions are the most popular and most frequently pursued acquisition type. From the strategic perspective, the key questions are whether and how an acquirer will restructure the company, and how this will contribute to the acquired company’s competitive advantage. For instance, According to UPI (2012) Boeing is continuing to advance its defense logistics support portfolio with the acquisition of California Company Miro Technologies, a Boeing supplier. UPI (2012) further explains that Miro was a privately held software company specializing in enterprise asset and supply chain management; maintenance, repair and overhaul services; and performance-based logistics management. It will become part of Boeings Global Services and Support business within Boeing Defense, Space and Security. Boeings services and logistics business has grown significantly in recent years and Miro has been a trusted technology partner during that time. (Parasida, as cited in UPI, 2012) Specifically, the acquisition expands GSS product offerings for linking and fusing data from existing systems to improve mission readiness and to reduce sustainment costs. Some of the major advantages that acquisitions provide to multi-national firms are the following. First, Riley (2012) stated that firms could have quick access to resources both physical and human as well as potential skills and competencies. Secondly, economies of scale could be achieved which helps spread the risk through wider range of products and greater geographical spread. However, from an own point of view, the main drawback of acquiring other companies from a different nation is the clash of cultures. From instance, when Wal-Mart decided to enter the European market through Germany it acquired two `German retailers however, the two acquired companies had a totally different corporate culture which prohibited Wal-Mart from integrating its corporate culture into the newly acquired companies. Therefore, from an own point of Wal-Mart’s entry in the German market through acquisition could have been more successful if Wal-Mart carefully studied the various German retailers and appropriately chose a profitable German retailer that is characterized with a culture that is not highly differentiated from Wal-Mart’s corporate culture and can be integrated easily into Wal-Mart’s. Also the acquired companies should have given Wal-Mart a unique opportunity to effectively compete with the aggressive competition in the Retailing industry and offer a unique and innovative value proposition that is not offered by others. Mergers: According to Investopedia (2010) In the pure sense of the term, a merger happens when two firms, often of about the same size, agree to go forward as a single new company rather than remain separately owned and operated. This kind of action is more precisely referred to as a merger of equals. Both companies stocks are surrendered and new company stock is issued in its place. For example, both Daimler-Benz and Chrysler ceased to exist when the two firms merged, and a new company, DaimlerChrysler, was created. Schamotter (2012) stated that the mergers could benefit both companies in various ways. Firstly, A merged company can reduce many of its expenses. Budgets for things like marketing might be shared, while the new, larger company enjoys greater purchasing power, which lowers the costs of raw materials and other necessities. More often than not, a merger results in staff layoffs as positions become redundant in the new single entity. Merged companies can also share office space and eliminate duplicate manufacturing facilities. Secondly, Schamattor (2012) explains that by merging, the new company is theoretically provided with access to more customers. This is true if the individual companies had been demonstrably successful in separate markets, as opposed to roughly equally competing in the same one. For example, according to the BBC, the merger of the German automaker Daimler Benz with the American automaker Chrysler Corp. allowed the new company, Daimler Benz, to access markets in both Europe and North America. Merged companies can offer a greater range of products and services. Because these may be complimentary, the merged company may be able to capture more consumers than they would as individual entities. Moreover, the research firmly believes that merged companies can access a diversified set of intellectual capital through different human skills and competencies that could be used as a platform from conti nuous innovation and new product development. On the contrary, mergers could harm both companies if a clash of culture does exist. Just like acquisitions, a firm merging with another firm from a different culture could lead to decline in the firm’s performance, unsatisfied employees, and more importantly loss of shareholder’s value and decline in the market performance. These arguments are supported by both Wild Wild (2012) and Chung Enderwich (2011) as they both argued that lack of cross-cultural competence is the barrier to an effective and long-term mergers. Joint Ventures: In some situations or circumstances, many multinational firms prefer to share ownership of an operation rather than complete ownership. Joint ventures differs from mergers in the sense that in joint ventures â€Å"a separate company is created and jointly owned by two or more independent entities to achieve a common business goal. The partners could be private firms, government agencies, or public companies (companies owned by the government). For example, BP was forced according to the law in Egypt to form a joint venture with the Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation (EGPC) has made our joint venture, GUPCO, an industry leader and one of the largest oil and gas operations in the entire region. Moreover, BP Egypt has another joint venture with United Gas Derivatives Company (UGDC), owns and operates the largest natural gas liquids (NGL) plant in Egypt. Wild Wild (2012) discussed some of the advantages of joint ventures. First, they argued that companies do rely on joint ventures to reduce risk. In other words, a company can use a joint venture to learn about the local business environment before operating solely. Secondly, they argued that companies can use joint ventures to penetrate international markets that are other wise off limits. Some governments do design and implement laws that force foreign companies to share ownership with domestic firms. Finally, â€Å"a company can gain access to another company’s international distribution networks through the use of joint ventures.† (Worley Worley, 2012, p.374) Among the disadvantages of joint ventures, conflict of ownership might arise between the two parties. Also Worley Worley (2012) added that conflict can also arise from disagreements over how future investments and profits are to be shared. Secondly, they are stated that loss of control over a joint venture’s operations can also result when the local government is a partner in the venture. Where governments could decide to nationalize the company and takes full ownership of the venture. Conclusion: To conclude, the choice of the entry mode has many important strategic implications for a firm’s long-term operations. Firms do spend a large sum of money and devote much of their time in determining the most efficient and effective way to enter the desired global market. From an own point of view, which is also supported by the work of Worley Worley (2012), Zekiri Angelova (2011) and Kotler Armstrong (2008) one of the critical activities that needs to be conducted before the entry choice is to analyze and evaluate both the opportunities and threats present in the local business environment of the host country. The culture, which is the set of values, beliefs and norms greatly differ from one country to another and could negatively or positively influence the firm’s performance. Wal-Mart’s failure in Germany was the result of the lack of intercultural competence. The political and legal environment could serve as an opportunity or threat for a specific firm. For example, political instability in a target market increases the risk of investment. Certain import regulations such as high tariffs, or low quota limits can discourage a firm to export its products to this country. Also local content requirements by governments could force multinational corporations to use local resources which might not be meeting the quality standards. Bibliography: 1- Wild, J Wild, K. (2012). â€Å"International business: the challenges of globalization.† (6th ed.). London: Pearson Education 2- Wheleen, T. Hunger, D. (2010). â€Å"Strategic management and business policy†. (12th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education 3- Kotler, P. Armstrong, G. (2008). â€Å"Principles of marketing.† (12th ed.). New Jersey: Peasron Education 4- Shaver, J. (2011). The benefits of geographic sales diversification: how exporting facilitates capital investment. Strategic Management Journal, 1046-1060. Retrieved from Ebscohost research database. 5- Zekiri, J. Angelova, B. (2011). Factors that influence entry mode choice in foreign markets. European Journal of Social Science, 4(22), 572-584. Retrieved from Ebscohost research database. 6- Roland Berger Tata Strategic Management Group. (2009). India: opportunities challenges. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=trct=jq=esrc=ssource=webcd=2ved=0CDcQFjABurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rolandberger.de% 2Fmedia%2Fpdf%2FRoland_Berger_India_Opportunities_20090706.pdfei=dj2-ULGmGczFswbcuIG4Dgusg=AFQjCNEwgEyYvYOggC_So6o_Mfx5S_CooQsig2=yoLcEuhmRXeawISVMaXBEg 7- Lahovnik, M. (2011). Strategic fit between business strategies in the post-acquisition period and acquisition performance. Retrieved from 8- Dahlstrom, R. Ramsay, R. Duncan, J. Amburgey, T. (2004). Cases in strategic-systems auditing. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=trct=jq=esrc=ssource=webcd=1ved=0CC8QFjAAurl=http%3A%2F%2Fbusiness.illinois.edu%2Fkpmg-uiuccases%2Fcases%2Ftricon%2FTricon.pdfei=mD6-UNzEKozAtAb-kYH4DQusg=AFQj